miércoles, 4 de marzo de 2009

Nicolás Copérnico (1473 - 1543)

Era el año 1502. El joven profesor de astronomía de la Universidad de Roma, hizo una pausa en su lección sobre el plan del universo. De todos los paises civilizados del mundo arribaron sus discípulos para oír las lecciones de Copérnico sobre las estrellas y los planetas. Continuó haciendo la exposición del tolemáico : "La Tierra es el centro del universo; el Sol, la Luna y los cinco planetas son satélites que giran diariamente en torno a nuestra majestuosa tierra en un círculo perfecto. Mas allá se encuentran las estrellas fijas , que todo lo rodean. Estas son las verdades fundamentales que escribió el gran Claudio Tolomeo hace mas de mil quinientos años y que son evidentes para los sentidos". Un jóven de ojos brillantes hizo una pregunta:"Distinguido profesor", dijo tímidamente el jóven, "¿no disputó esto el antiguo filófofo girego Pitágoras diciendo que no es la Tierra la que se encuentra en el centro del Universo, sino el Sol?".
Copérnico estaba a punto de responder, como lo hizo muchas veces, que el gran Aristóteles refutó categoricamente a Pitágoras y que, siendo el hombre la obra maestra de Dios, la Tierra que habitaba debería estar en el centro del Universo. Esta vez, sin embargo, Copérnico tenía tan poca fe en su acostumbrada respuesta que dio por terminada la clase y salió bruscamente de la sala. Después de tres años de dedicarse a la enseñanza, resolvio renunciar. Como no deseaba enseñar ya lo que él mismo dudaba, decidió volvera a su casa, en Frauenburg, que entonces era parte de polonio, para dedicarse a determinar para su satisfacción si Tolomeo y los distinguidos profesores del siglo XVI tenían razón o estaban equivocados. Nicolás Copérnico nación en Thorn, pequeño puerto de Polonia en el río Vístula, cerca del Mar Báltico. su padre, que era mercader murió cuando Nicolás tenia 10 años, y su tio que era una figura principal de Polonia, el obispo Lucas Watzelrode, asumió la responsabilidad de educarlo. De jóven, en Nicolás influyó el punto de vista positivo y práctico de su padre mercader y de su tío administrador de la Iglesia. Por otra parte, estimularon su imaginación las victorias de los marinos y los mercaderes que pasaban por el puerto de Thorn cuando venían de Asia, Italia, Rusia y otros lugares lejanos.


En 1942, cuando Colón descubría America y abria un nuevo mundo geográfico, Copérnico se matriculó en la Universidad de Cracovia, en Polonia, uno de los centros mas distinguidos de cultura de esa época. Quedó bajo la tutela de Alberto Brudzewski, notable matemático y astrónomo, que cultivó el profundo interés de Nicolás en esas materias. Sin embargo, por consejo de su tío, el obispo, Nicolás se licenció en medicina, a fin de prestar una ayuda mas directa a sus compatriotas. La obra de Nicolás en Cracovia le abrió las puertas de las cultura. Le preguntó a su tío si podia continuar sus estudios en Italia, centro de aprendizaje y cuna del Renacimiento. Prudentemente, su tío consistió e hizo los arreglos necesarios para que asistiera a la famosa universidad de Bolonia, donde estudió derecho y amplió sus conocimientos de matemáticas y astronomía. También aprendió griego a fin de leer los textos originales de los astrónomos griegos, asi como sus traducciones de los antiguos matemáticos árabes.


De conformidad con el concepto renacentista de la educación universañ, Copérnico desarrolló sus aptitudes como pintor y poeta.
En esa época fue nombrado profesor de astronomía de la Universidad de Roma. Aunque enseñaba la tradicional astronomía tolemaica, su lectura de los textos originales de Pitágoras y otros filósofos antiguos, asi como su educación pragmática lo hicieron dudar de la existencia de la teoría tolemaica sobre la estructura geocentrica del Universo, que fue aceptada durante mil quinientos años. Se hizo preguntas como esta: " Si el Sol gira alrededor de la Tierra en la órbita fija de un circulo perfecto, ¿como explicar el cambio de las estaciones? ¿como es que algunas estrellas y planetas varian de posición de un año a otro?. Naturalmente los sabios de la época explicaban dichas variaciones llamándolas aberraciones, migraciones caprichosas o movimientos místicos de las almas interiores ed los planetas.


Para la mente aguda e inquisitiva del jóven Copérnico éstas respuestas eran una farsa; por lo tanto, decidió irse de Roma y buscar las soluciones que lo dejaran satisfecho en la calma de su patria. Pero pasaría mucho tiempo antes de que encontrara esas soluciones. en 1504 renunció a su
profesorado y egresó a Frauenburg para convertirse en canónigo de la Iglesia. A partir de entonces, pasó varios años como médico y ayudante de su tío, el obispo Watzlrode. En esta calidad, ganó la estima y el afecto de todos con quienes tuvo relación. Sus estudios de deercho le permitieron ser justo y equitativo en la administración de las tierras de la Iglesia. Se dió a conocer en todas partes como médico hábil y ofrecía sus conocimientos gratuitamente para curar a los pobres y a los menesterosos. A solicitud del Papa, aconsejó algunas reformas prñacticas para hacer mas preciso el calendario. Clavio, que estudió la evolucion de nuestro calendario, decía:"Copérnico fue el primero en descubrir la duraciñon exacta del año". Autoridades posteriores que sus calculos de la longitud del año tenían un error solo de veintiocho segundos. Cuando los soberanos de Polonia, en una epoca de crisis económica, pidieron a Copérnico que reformara el sistema monetario, abogó por la acuñacíon central de moneda para toda Polonio, y devolviò la confianza en el dinero polaco prohibiendo la acuñación de nuevas monedas sin el debido respaldo de la plata o el oro. Por un tiempo, en 1520, sirvió como gobernador del castillo de Allenstein y lo defendió victotiosamente contra el asedio de los caballeros teutones. Aunque se consagró al bienestar de su Iglesia y de sus compatriotas durante estos años, no olvidó su deseo de resolver el anigma de la estructura del Universo.


Pasaba las noches en la torre de su casa, en lo alto de la montaña, observando las estrellas y los planetas, haciendo anotaciones sobre su posición y leyendo todos los manuscritos que tenia de los antigus astrónomos. Su investigación era especialmente difícil, debido a que aun no se inventaba el telescopio y, es esa región, durante gran parte del año, el clima oscurecía la visibilidad del cielo. El progreso era lento. Estudió los eclipses que ocurrieron en 1509 y 1511. Usando fórmulas matemáticas y su teoría del movimiento de los planetas Marte, Saturno, Júpiter y Venus. Luego, explorando ansiosamente el cielo durante varios años para ver si sus calculos eran correctos, descubrió con gran alegría que lo eran.

Al fin tenía pruebas para demostras que la teoría tolemáica, con su falsa explicación de las variaciones y sus telarañas de confusión e incoherencias que hacían de la astronomía una ciencia equivocada, era falsa.
La teoría que verificó Copérnico ponía al Sol en el centro del Universo, la Tierra y los otros planetas giraban alrededor de él y las estrellas lo rodeaban todo en el cielo infinito. Sabía tambien que la Tierra gira sobre su propio eje, lo cual daba el dia y la noche. Dichos movimientos siguen las infalibles leyes matemáticas de la Naturaleza. Puede predecirse con fórmulas la posición de cada planeta en el cielo en cualquier momento dado, inclusive los eclipses. Copérnico descubrió la verdad, pero el conseguir que el mundo la aceptara era un proceso ñento y peligroso, que se enfrentaba a antiguas creencias vinculadas con la superstición y el dogma religioso.


Aunque el Renacimiento fue una época de investigaciones y de libertadde discusión en los círculos literarios, se considerana herética la contradicción sospechosa del dogma religioso. Por lo tanto, Copérnico decidió no publicar sus hallazgosm sino tratar de ganar partidarios entre los hombres cultos mediante la conversación y la discusión. Lo hizo asi con éxito limitado, pero inclusive este camino estaba preñado de peligros. Martin Luteron lo acusó de ser un necio que queria "volver completamente al reves el arte de la astronomía". Calvino citó el Salmo 93 contra él : "También el mundo esta afirmado; no será movido".
Hasta el fin de su vida, cuando lo convencieron de que debería publicar sus ideas, escribio "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium"( sobre las revoluciones de las esferas celestes) y dedicó el libro al Papa PauloIII para obtener la aprobación eclesiástica.

Al impresor de Nuremberg le atemorizó tanto la naturaleza revolucinaria del texto que encargó a alguien que escribiera un prólogo en el cual se afirmaba que el libro no era un tratado científico, sino una "fantasía ociosa!. Copérnico se habría enfadado si hubiera leído esta descripción de la obra de su vida, pero nunca pudo leer el libro impreso, que le fue puesto en las manos cuando estaba en su lecho de muerte, el 24 de mayo de 1543. La obra de Copérnico fue el cimiento sobre el que Galileo, Brahe, Kepler, Newton , Einstein y otros construyeron la astronomía moderna, pero hizo algo mas que eso. Mas tarde su ejemplo animó a otras almas intrépidas a desafiar otras creencias místicas basadas en supersticiones que perjudicaban el espíritu del género humano. Además, creó un modelo de investigación científica basada en la observación cuidadosa y paciente, en el análisis y la experimentación.

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